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Prejudice against women

Misogyny () is hatred of, contempt for, or prejudice against women. It is a course of sexism that keeps women at a lower social condition than men, thus maintaining the societal roles of patriarchy. Misogyny has been widely proficient for thousands of years. It is reflected in art, literature, human societal structure, historical events, mythology, philosophy, and religion worldwide.

An example of misogyny is violence confronting women, which includes domestic violence and, in its about farthermost forms, misogynist terrorism and femicide. Misogyny likewise oftentimes operates through sexual harassment, coercion, and psychological techniques aimed at controlling women, and by legally or socially excluding women from full citizenship. In some cases, misogyny rewards women for accepting an inferior status.

Misogyny can be understood both as an mental attitude held past individuals, primarily by men, and equally a widespread cultural custom or system.

In feminist idea, misogyny also includes the rejection of feminine qualities. Information technology holds in antipathy institutions, work, hobbies, or habits associated with women. It rejects whatever aspects of men that are seen equally feminine or unmanly. Misogyny may or may not include hate towards LGBT people, in the forms of homophobia and transmisogyny. Racism and other prejudices may reinforce and overlap with misogyny.

According to the Oxford English Lexicon the English word "misogyny" was coined in the middle of the 17th century from the Greek misos 'hatred' + gunē 'woman'.[i] The word was rarely used until it was popularised past 2d wave feminism in the 1970s.

Background

Misogyny likely arose at the same fourth dimension every bit patriarchy: three to five thousand years ago at the beginning of the Bronze Age. Monotheism—the belief in i, usually male god—began to supercede pantheism and matriarchal religions. The three main monotheistic religions of Judaism, Christianity and Islam promoted patriarchal societal structures, and used misogyny to keep women at a lower status.[2] [3] Misogyny gained forcefulness in the Middle Ages, particularly in Christian societies.[four]

In parallel to these developments, misogyny was too practiced in more primitive global societies such equally the tribes of the Amazon Basin and Melanesia, who did not follow a monotheistic faith. Nearly every human culture contains show of misogyny.[5]

Anthropologist David D. Gilmore argues that misogyny is rooted in men'southward alien feelings: men'south existential dependence on women for procreation, and men'south fear of women'due south ability over them in their times of male weakness, contrasted against the deep-seated needs of men for the dear, care and comfort of women—a need that makes the men feel vulnerable.[6]

Definitions

English and American dictionaries ascertain misogyny as "hatred of women"[7] [eight] [9] and as "hatred, dislike, or mistrust of women".[10]

The American Merriam-Webster Dictionary distinguishes misogyny "a hatred of women" from sexism, which denotes sex based bigotry, and "behavior, conditions, or attitudes that foster stereotypes of social roles based on sex."[xi]

In 2012, primarily in response to a voice communication in the Australian Parliament,[12] the Macquarie Lexicon (which documents Australian English and New Zealand English) expanded its definition to include not only hatred of women merely also "entrenched prejudices against women".[13]

Social psychology research describes overt misogyny as "breathy hostile sexism" that raises resistance in women, as opposed to "manifestations of benevolent sexism" or chivalry that lead women to behave in a manner perpetuating patriarchal arrangements.[14]

According to sociologist Allan M. Johnson, "misogyny is a cultural mental attitude of hatred for females because they are female". Johnson argues that:

Misogyny .... is a primal function of sexist prejudice and ideology and, equally such, is an of import basis for the oppression of females in male-dominated societies. Misogyny is manifested in many different ways, from jokes to pornography to violence to the self-contempt women may exist taught to experience toward their own bodies.[15]

Sociologist Michael Alluvion at the University of Wollongong defines misogyny as the hatred of women, and notes:

Though almost common in men, misogyny also exists in and is practiced by women against other women or fifty-fifty themselves. Misogyny functions every bit an ideology or belief arrangement that has accompanied patriarchal, or male-dominated societies for thousands of years and continues to place women in subordinate positions with limited access to power and decision making. […] Aristotle contended that women exist as natural deformities or imperfect males […] Ever since, women in Western cultures have internalised their function as societal scapegoats, influenced in the twenty-first century by multimedia objectification of women with its culturally sanctioned cocky-loathing and fixations on plastic surgery, anorexia and bulimia.[16]

Philosopher Kate Manne of Cornell Academy defines misogyny as the attempt to command and punish women who challenge male person dominance.[17] Manne finds the traditional "hatred of women" definition of misogyny too simplistic, noting information technology does not business relationship for how perpetrators of misogynistic violence may love certain women; for example, their mothers.[3] : 52 Instead, misogyny rewards women who uphold the status quo and punishes those who pass up women'due south subordinate status.[17] Manne distinguishes sexism, which she says seeks to rationalise and justify patriarchy, from misogyny, which she calls the "law enforcement" co-operative of patriarchy:

[S]exist ideology will tend to discriminate between men and women, typically by alleging sex differences beyond what is known or could exist known, and sometimes counter to our best current scientific evidence. Misogyny will typically differentiate between good women and bad ones, and punishes the latter. […] Sexism wears a lab coat; misogyny goes on witch hunts.[three] : 79

Misogynous and misogynistic tin can both be used every bit an adjectival form of the word.[eighteen] The noun misogynist can exist used for a woman-hating person. The counterpart of misogyny is misandry, the hatred or dislike of men; the antonym of misogyny is philogyny, love or fondness toward women,[nineteen] philogyny is not widely used, and misandry is a minor effect, not equivalent to the widespread practice and extensive history of misogyny.[6] Words derived from the word misogyny and denoting continued concepts include misogynoir, the intersection of anti-blackness racism and misogyny faced by Black women; transmisogyny, the intersection of misogyny and transphobia faced by trans women and transfeminine people; and transmisogynoir, the confluence of these faced by black trans women and transfeminine people.[twenty] [21]

Historical usage

Classical Greece

In his volume Metropolis of Sokrates: An Introduction to Classical Athens, J.Westward. Roberts argues that older than tragedy and comedy was a misogynistic tradition in Greek literature, reaching dorsum at least equally far as Hesiod.[22] He claims that the term misogyny itself comes directly into English from the Ancient Greek discussion misogunia ( μισογυνία ), which survives in several passages.

The earlier, longer, and more complete passage comes from a moral tract known every bit On Marriage (c. 150 BC) by the stoic philosopher Antipater of Tarsus.[23] [24] Antipater argues that marriage is the foundation of the state, and considers information technology to be based on divine (polytheistic) decree. He uses misogunia to depict the sort of writing the tragedian Euripides eschews, stating that he "reject[s] the hatred of women in his writing" (ἀποθέμενος τὴν ἐν τῷ γράφειν μισογυνίαν). He then offers an instance of this, quoting from a lost play of Euripides in which the merits of a dutiful wife are praised.[24] [25]

According to Tieleman other surviving employ of the Ancient Greek word is by Chrysippus, in a fragment from On affections, quoted past Galen in Hippocrates on Affections.[26] Here, misogyny is the kickoff in a curt list of three "disaffections"—women (misogunia), wine (misoinia, μισοινία) and humanity (misanthrōpia, μισανθρωπία). Chrysippus' betoken is more abstruse than Antipater's, and Galen quotes the passage as an example of an stance contrary to his own. What is clear, withal, is that he groups hatred of women with hatred of humanity generally, and even hatred of wine. "It was the prevailing medical stance of his twenty-four hours that vino strengthens body and soul alike."[27] Then Chrysippus, like his beau stoic Antipater, views misogyny negatively, every bit a disease; a dislike of something that is skilful. It is this outcome of conflicted or alternating emotions that was philosophically contentious to the ancient writers. Ricardo Salles suggests that the general stoic view was that "[a] human may not simply alternating between philogyny and misogyny, philanthropy and misanthropy, but be prompted to each by the other."[28]

In the Routledge philosophy guidebook to Plato and the Republic, Nickolas Pappas describes the "problem of misogyny" and states:

In the Apology, Socrates calls those who plead for their lives in court "no better than women" (35b)... The Timaeus warns men that if they live immorally they will be reincarnated as women (42b-c; cf. 75d-due east). The Republic contains a number of comments in the same spirit (387e, 395d-e, 398e, 431b-c, 469d), evidence of nothing so much every bit of antipathy toward women. Even Socrates' words for his bold new proposal nearly marriage... suggest that the women are to be "held in common" by men. He never says that the men might be held in common by the women... We besides have to acknowledge Socrates' insistence that men surpass women at any chore that both sexes effort (455c, 456a), and his remark in Volume eight that one sign of democracy's moral failure is the sexual equality it promotes (563b).[29]

Misogynist is likewise plant in the Greek—misogunēs ( μισογύνης )—in Deipnosophistae (above) and in Plutarch's Parallel Lives, where it is used as the title of Heracles in the history of Phocion. It was the title of a play by Menander, which we know of from book 7 (concerning Alexandria) of Strabo'south 17 volume Geography,[30] [31] and quotations of Menander past Clement of Alexandria and Stobaeus that relate to matrimony.[32] A Greek play with a similar name, Misogunos (Μισόγυνος) or Woman-hater, is reported past Marcus Tullius Cicero (in Latin) and attributed to the poet Marcus Atilius.[33]

Cicero reports that Greek philosophers considered misogyny to be caused by gynophobia, a fearfulness of women.[34]

It is the same with other diseases; as the desire of glory, a passion for women, to which the Greeks requite the name of philogyneia: and thus all other diseases and sicknesses are generated. Merely those feelings which are the contrary of these are supposed to take fright for their foundation, every bit a hatred of women, such as is displayed in the Adult female-hater of Atilius; or the hatred of the whole human species, as Timon is reported to have done, whom they call the Misanthrope. Of the same kind is inhospitality. And all these diseases proceed from a certain dread of such things equally they hate and avoid.[34]

In summary, despite considering women equally generally inferior to men, Greek literature considered misogyny to exist a disease—an anti-social status—in that it ran contrary to their perceptions of the value of women every bit wives and of the family unit as the foundation of society. These points are widely noted in the secondary literature.[24]

English linguistic communication

According to the Oxford English language Dictionary the give-and-take entered English language considering of an anonymous proto-feminist play, Swetnam the Woman-Hater, published in 1620 in England.[35] The play is a criticism of anti-woman writer Joseph Swetnam, who information technology represents with the pseudonym Misogynos. The character of Misogynos is the origin of the term misogynist in English.[36]

The term was fairly rare until the mid-1970s. The publication of feminist Andrea Dworkin'southward 1974 critique Woman Hating popularised the thought. The term misogyny entered the lexicon of second-wave feminism. Dworkin and her contemporaries used the term to include not simply a hatred or contempt of women, but the practice of controlling women with violence and punishing women who decline subordination.[36]

Misogyny was discussed worldwide in 2012 because of a viral video of a spoken communication by Australian Prime Minister Julia Gillard. Her parliamentary address is known as the Misogyny Speech. In the spoken communication, Gillard powerfully criticised her opponents for property her policies to a different standard than those of male politicians, and for speaking about her in crudely sexual terms.[37] She was criticised for systemic misogyny considering before in the twenty-four hours her Labor Political party had passed legislation cutting $728 million in welfare benefits to unmarried mothers.[38]

Gillard'south usage of the word "misogyny" promoted re-evaluations of the give-and-take'due south published definitions. The Macquarie Dictionary revised its definition in 2012 to better match the way the give-and-take has been used over the prior thirty years.[39] The book Down Girl, which reconsidered the definition using the tools of analytic philosophy, was inspired in part by Gillard.[3] : 83

Religion

Aboriginal Greek

Pandora - John William Waterhouse

In Misogyny: The Globe's Oldest Prejudice, Jack Kingdom of the netherlands argues that there is evidence of misogyny in the mythology of the ancient globe. In Greek mythology according to Hesiod, the human race had already experienced a peaceful, autonomous beingness as a companion to the gods before the cosmos of women. When Prometheus decides to steal the undercover of fire from the gods, Zeus becomes infuriated and decides to punish humankind with an "evil affair for their delight". This "evil matter" is Pandora, the kickoff woman, who carried a jar (unremarkably described—incorrectly—as a box) which she was told to never open. Epimetheus (the brother of Prometheus) is overwhelmed by her beauty, disregards Prometheus' warnings almost her, and marries her. Pandora cannot resist peeking into the jar, and by opening it she unleashes into the globe all evil; labour, sickness, old historic period, and death.[40]

Buddhism

In his volume The Power of Deprival: Buddhism, Purity, and Gender, professor Bernard Faure of Columbia University argued generally that "Buddhism is paradoxically neither as sexist nor as egalitarian equally is usually thought." He remarked, "Many feminist scholars have emphasised the misogynistic (or at least androcentric) nature of Buddhism" and stated that Buddhism morally exalts its male monks while the mothers and wives of the monks besides have important roles. Additionally, he wrote:

While some scholars see Buddhism as part of a movement of emancipation, others encounter it every bit a source of oppression. Perhaps this is just a distinction between optimists and pessimists, if non between idealists and realists... As nosotros begin to realise, the term "Buddhism" does not designate a monolithic entity, but covers a number of doctrines, ideologies, and practices--some of which seem to invite, tolerate, and even cultivate "otherness" on their margins.[41]

Christianity

Differences in tradition and interpretations of scripture have acquired sects of Christianity to differ in their beliefs with regard to their treatment of women.

In The Troublesome Bride, Katharine K. Rogers argues that Christianity is misogynistic, and she lists what she says are specific examples of misogyny in the Pauline epistles. She states:

The foundations of early Christian misogyny — its guilt almost sexual activity, its insistence on female subjection, its dread of female seduction — are all in St. Paul's epistles.[42]

In K. K. Ruthven'south Feminist Literary Studies: An Introduction, Ruthven makes reference to Rogers' volume and argues that the "legacy of Christian misogyny was consolidated past the so-called 'Fathers' of the Church, like Tertullian, who thought a woman was not simply 'the gateway of the devil' just also 'a temple built over a sewer'."[43]

Several Christian institutions exclude women. For example, women are excluded from the Mount Athos region of Greece and from the governing Hierarchy of the Cosmic Church. Some Christian theologians, such equally John Knox in his book The First Blast of the Trumpet Against the Monstruous Regiment of Women, accept written that women should be excluded from secular regime institutions also for religious reasons.

Personification of the vii deadly sins, Mediaeval, Wellcome L0029327

Withal, some other scholars have argued that Christianity does not include misogynistic principles, or at least that a proper interpretation of Christianity would not include misogynistic principles. David M. Scholer, a biblical scholar at Fuller Theological Seminary, stated that the poesy Galatians 3:28 ("At that place is neither Jew nor Greek, at that place is neither slave nor free, there is neither male nor female person; for you are all one in Christ Jesus") is "the central Pauline theological basis for the inclusion of women and men as equal and mutual partners in all of the ministries of the church building."[44] [45] In his book Equality in Christ? Galatians three:28 and the Gender Dispute, Richard Hove argues that—while Galatians 3:28 does hateful that one's sex does not bear on salvation—"at that place remains a blueprint in which the wife is to emulate the church's submission to Christ[46] and the married man is to emulate Christ's love for the church."[47]

In Christian Men Who Hate Women, clinical psychologist Margaret J. Rinck has written that Christian social civilisation often allows a misogynist "misuse of the biblical ideal of submission". Withal, she argues that this a distortion of the "healthy relationship of mutual submission" which is actually specified in Christian doctrine, where "[l]ove is based on a deep, mutual respect as the guiding principle behind all decisions, actions, and plans".[48] Similarly, Cosmic scholar Christopher West argues that "male person domination violates God's plan and is the specific consequence of sin".[49]

Islam

The fourth chapter (or sura) of the Quran is chosen "Women" (an-nisa). The 34th verse is a key verse in feminist criticism of Islam.[l] The verse notes men's God-given advantages over women. They are consequently their protectors and maintainers. Where women are disobedient "chide them, and leave them lone in the sleeping-places and beat them; then if they obey you, do non seek a manner against them...." In his book No god but God, University of Southern California, Professor Reza Aslan wrote that "misogynistic interpretation" has been persistently attached to An-Nisa, 34 considering commentary on the Quran "has been the sectional domain of Muslim men".[51]

In his book Popular Islam and Misogyny: A Case Study of People's republic of bangladesh, Taj Hashmi discusses misogyny in relation to Muslim culture, writing:

[T]hanks to the subjective interpretations of the Quran (almost exclusively by men), the preponderance of the misogynic mullahs and the regressive Shariah law in virtually "Muslim" countries, Islam is synonymously known as a promoter of misogyny in its worst form.... we may draw a line between the Quranic texts and the corpus of avowedly misogynic writing and spoken words past the mullah having very little or no relevance to the Quran.[52]

Sikhism

Guru Nanak in the center, among other Sikh figures

Scholars William M. Reynolds and Julie A. Webber have written that Guru Nanak, the founder of the Sikh faith tradition, was a "fighter for women's rights" that was "in no way misogynistic" in contrast to some of his contemporaries.[53]

Misogynistic ideas amid prominent Western thinkers

Numerous influential Western philosophers have expressed ideas that take been characterised as misogynistic, including Aristotle, René Descartes, Thomas Hobbes, John Locke, David Hume, Jean-Jacques Rousseau, G. W. F. Hegel, Arthur Schopenhauer, Friedrich Nietzsche, Charles Darwin, Sigmund Freud, Otto Weininger, Oswald Spengler, and John Lucas.[54] Because of the influence of these thinkers, feminist scholars trace misogyny in Western culture to these philosophers and their ideas.[55]

Aristotle

Portrait of Aristoteles, Copy of Lysippos, Louvre

Aristotle believed women were inferior and described them as "plain-featured males".[56] [57] In his work Politics, he states

equally regards the sexes, the male is past nature superior and the female inferior, the male person ruler and the female subject 4 (1254b13-14).[57]

Another case is Cynthia'due south catalog where Cynthia states "Aristotle says that the backbone of a man lies in commanding, a adult female'due south lies in obeying; that 'affair yearns for course, as the female person for the male person and the ugly for the beautiful'; that women have fewer teeth than men; that a female person is an incomplete male or 'as it were, a deformity'.[56] Aristotle believed that men and women naturally differed both physically and mentally. He claimed that women are "more than mischievous, less simple, more impulsive ... more than compassionate[,] ... more hands moved to tears[,] ... more jealous, more querulous, more apt to scold and to strike[,] ... more prone to despondency and less hopeful[,] ... more void of shame or self-respect, more than simulated of speech, more deceptive, of more retentive memory [and] ... likewise more than wakeful; more shrinking [and] more difficult to rouse to activeness" than men.[58]

Jean-Jacques Rousseau

Jean-Jacques Rousseau is well known for his views against equal rights for women for example in his treatise Emile, he writes: "Always justify the burdens you impose upon girls only impose them anyway... . They must be thwarted from an early on age... . They must be exercised to constraint, so that it costs them nothing to stifle all their fantasies to submit them to the volition of others." Other quotes consist of "closed up in their houses", "must receive the decisions of fathers and husbands like that of the church".[59]

Arthur Schopenhauer

Arthur Schopenhauer has been noted every bit a misogynist by many such equally the philosopher, critic, and author Tom Grimwood.[60] In a 2008 article published in the philosophical journal of Kritique, Grimwood argues that Schopenhauer's misogynistic works accept largely escaped attention despite beingness more noticeable than those of other philosophers such as Nietzsche.[threescore] For example, he noted Schopenhauer's works where the latter had argued women just accept "meagre" reason comparable that of "the animal" "who lives in the present". Other works he noted consisted of Schopenhauer'southward argument that women's simply function in nature is to farther the species through childbirth and hence is equipped with the power to seduce and "capture" men.[60] He goes on to land that women'due south cheerfulness is chaotic and disruptive which is why it is crucial to do obedience to those with rationality. For her to role beyond her rational subjugator is a threat against men besides equally other women, he notes. Schopenhauer also thought women's cheerfulness is an expression of her lack of morality and incapability to sympathise abstract or objective pregnant such as art.[threescore] This is followed upwardly past his quote "have never been able to produce a single, really great, genuine and original achievement in the fine arts, or bring to anywhere into the world a piece of work of permanent value".[60] Arthur Schopenhauer also blamed women for the autumn of King Louis XIII and triggering the French Revolution, in which he was later quoted as saying:[60]

"At all events, a false position of the female sex, such equally has its most acute symptom in our lady-business, is a fundamental defect of the state of lodge. Proceeding from the centre of this, it is bound to spread its noxious influence to all parts."[60]

Schopenhauer has besides been accused of misogyny for his essay "On Women" (Über die Weiber), in which he expressed his opposition to what he called "Teutonico-Christian stupidity" on female diplomacy. He argued that women are "by nature meant to obey" as they are "childish, frivolous, and short sighted".[54] He claimed that no woman had e'er produced dandy art or "whatever work of permanent value".[54] He likewise argued that women did not possess any real dazzler:[61]

It is only a man whose intellect is clouded past his sexual impulse that could give the name of the off-white sex to that nether-sized, narrow-shouldered, wide-hipped, and short-legged race; for the whole beauty of the sexual practice is bound upwards with this impulse. Instead of calling them cute there would be more warrant for describing women equally the unaesthetic sex.

Nietzsche

In Beyond Practiced and Evil, Friedrich Nietzsche stated that stricter controls on women was a condition of "every meridian of culture".[62] In his Thus Spoke Zarathustra, he has a female character say "You are going to women? Do not forget the whip!"[63] In Twilight of the Idols, Nietzsche writes "Women are considered profound. Why? Because we never fathom their depths. But women aren't fifty-fifty shallow."[64] There is controversy over the questions of whether or not this amounts to misogyny, whether his polemic against women is meant to exist taken literally, and the exact nature of his opinions of women.[65]

Hegel

Hegel'south view of women can be characterised as misogynistic.[66] Passages from Hegel's Elements of the Philosophy of Correct illustrate the criticism:[67]

Women are capable of pedagogy, but they are non fabricated for activities which demand a universal kinesthesia such every bit the more advanced sciences, philosophy and sure forms of artistic product... Women regulate their actions not by the demands of universality, but past capricious inclinations and opinions.

Violence

Terrorism and hate crimes

Femicide is the name of a hate crime, the intentional killing of women or girls on account of their sex. It is ideological misogynist killing, and in some cases may also be an example of domestic violence.[68]

Misogynist terrorism is terrorism intended to punish woman. Since 2018 counter-terrorism professionals such as ICCT and Start have tracked misogyny or male person supremacy every bit ideologies that have motivated terrorism. They describe this class of terror equally a "rising threat". Among the attacks designated as misogynist terrorism are the 2014 Isla Vista killings and the 2018 Toronto van attack.[69] Some of the attackers accept identified with the incel movement, and were motivated to kill by a perception of existence entitled to sexual access to women.[69] However, misogyny is common among mass killers, fifty-fifty when it is not the master motivation.[seventy]

Online misogyny

Misogynistic rhetoric is prevalent online and has grown more aggressive over fourth dimension.[71] [72] Online misogyny includes both individual attempts to intimidate and denigrate women,[71] deprival of gender inequity (neosexism),[73] [74] and also coordinated, collective attempts such as vote brigading and the Gamergate antifeminist harassment campaign.[75] In a paper written for the Journal of International Affairs, Kim Barker and Olga Jurasz discuss how online misogyny can lead to women facing obstacles when trying to engage in the public and political spheres of the cyberspace due to the abusive nature of these spaces. They as well suggest regulations and shut downs of online misogyny through both governmental and non-governmental means. [76]

Coordinated attacks

Anita Sarkeesian was the target of a coordinated misogynistic attack because of her feminist work.

The most probable targets for misogynistic attacks by coordinated groups are women who are visible in the public sphere, women who speak out about the threats they receive, and women who are perceived to be associated with feminism or feminist gains. Authors of misogynistic letters are ordinarily bearding or otherwise difficult to place. Their rhetoric involves misogynistic epithets and graphic or sexualised imagery. It centres on the women's physical appearance, and prescribes sexual violence as a corrective for the targeted women. Examples of famous women who spoke out about misogynistic attacks are Anita Sarkeesian, Laurie Penny, Caroline Criado Perez, Stella Creasy, and Lindy Westward.[71]

These attacks exercise not ever remain online only. Swatting was used to bring Gamergate attacks into the physical globe.[77]

Language used

The insults and threats directed at unlike women tend to be very similar. Jude Ellison Sady Doyle, who has been the target of online threats, noted the "overwhelmingly impersonal, repetitive, stereotyped quality" of the corruption, the fact that "all of the states are being called the same things, in the aforementioned tone".[71]

A 2016 written report conducted past the think tank Demos establish that the bulk of Twitter messages containing the words "whore" or "slut" were advertisements for pornography. Of those that were not, a majority used the terms in a non-ambitious way, such a discussion of slut-shaming. Of those that used the terms "whore" or "slut" in an aggressive, insulting manner, near half were women and one-half were men. Twitter users most oftentimes targeted by women with aggressive insults were celebrities, such as Beyoncé Knowles.[78]

A 2020 written report published in the journal New Media & Order also discusses how language on the cyberspace can contribute to online misogyny. The authors specifically criticise Urban Dictionary, challenge the language used in the definitions are misogynistic and anti-feminist, rather than merely beingness a collaborative dictionary.[79]

A 2021 study published at the meeting of the Association for Computational Linguistics notes that online misogyny presents differently in different contexts. For case: Castilian online discussions show a stronger presence of Authority; Italian misogyny has a plurality of stereotyping & objectification; English online misogyny about often involves discrediting women; and Danish discussions primarily express neosexism. [73]

With white supremacy

Andrew Anglin uses the white supremacist website The Daily Stormer as a platform to promote misogynistic conspiracy theories, claiming that politically agile "[w]hite women beyond the Western earth" are pushing for liberal clearing policies "to ensure an endless supply of Blackness and Arab men to satisfy their depraved sexual desires."[80] In July 2018, Anglin summarised his misogynistic views, writing: "Look, I hate women. I recall they deserve to be browbeaten, raped and locked in cages."[81] The term misogynoir describes misogyny directed towards Black women where prejudice based upon race and gender play reinforcing roles.

Psychological impact

Internalised misogyny

Women who experience internalised misogyny may express information technology through minimising the value of women, mistrusting women, and believing gender bias in favour of men.[82] A common manifestation of internalised misogyny is lateral violence.

Abuse and harassment

Misogyny has taken shape as sexual harassment.[83]

Misogynist attitudes lead to the physical, sexual, and emotional abuse of gender nonconforming boys in childhood.[84]

Feminist theory

"Skillful" versus "bad" women

Many feminists accept written that the notions of "good" women and "bad" women are imposed upon women in order to command them. Women who are easy to control, or who advocate for their ain oppression, may be told they are practiced. The categories of bad and good too cause fighting among women; Helen Lewis identifies this "long tradition of regulating female behaviour past defining women in opposition to one another" as the architecture of misogyny.[85]

The Madonna–whore dichotomy or virgin/whore dichotomy is the perception of women as either practiced and celibate or as bad and promiscuous. Belief in this dichotomy leads to misogyny, co-ordinate to the feminist perspective, because the dichotomy appears to justify policing women's behaviour. Misogynists seek to punish "bad" women for their sexuality.[86] Author Chimamanda Ngozi Adichie observes that when women describe being harassed or assaulted (every bit in the #MeToo movement) they are viewed every bit deserving sympathy only if they are "good" women — nonsexual, and peradventure helpless.[87]

In her 1974 volume Adult female Hating, Andrea Dworkin uses traditional fairy tales to illustrate misogyny. Fairy tales designate certain women as "good", for example Sleeping Beauty and Snowfall White, who are inert, passive characters. Dworkin observed that these characters "never think, act, initiate, face up, resist, challenge, experience, intendance, or question. Sometimes they are forced to do housework." In contrast, the "evil" women who populate fairy tales are queens, witches, and other women with ability. Further, men in fairy tales are said to exist adept kings and proficient husbands irrespective of their actions. For Dworkin, this illustrates that nether misogyny only powerless women are immune to be seen equally good. No similar judgement is practical to men.[88]

In her book Right-Wing Women, Dworkin adds that powerful women are tolerated by misogynists provided women use their power to reinforce the power of men and to oppose feminism. Dworkin gives Phyllis Schlafly and Anita Bryant every bit examples of powerful women tolerated by antifeminists only considering they advocated for their ain oppression. Women may even exist worshiped or called superior to men if they are sufficiently "good", meaning obedient or inert.[89]

Philosopher Kate Manne argues that the word "misogyny" as used by modern feminists denotes not a generalised hatred of women, but instead the arrangement of distinguishing good from bad women. Misogyny is like a police force, Manne writes, that rewards or punishes women based on these judgements.[3] : 79

The patriarchal bargain

In the late 20th century, second-moving ridge feminist theorists argued that misogyny is both a cause and a result of patriarchal social structures.[90]

Economist Deniz Kandiyoti has written that colonisers of the Middle Due east, Africa, and Asia kept conquered armies of men under control by offering them complete ability over women. She calls this the "patriarchal bargain". Men who were interested in accepting the deal were promoted to leadership by colonial powers, causing the colonised societies to go more misogynistic.[91]

Contempt for the feminine

Julia Serano defines misogyny as not only hatred of women per se, merely the "tendency to dismiss and deride femaleness and femininity." In this view, misogyny also causes homophobia against gay men because gay men are stereotyped as feminine and weak; misogyny likewise causes anxiety among directly men that they will exist seen as unmanly.[92] Serano'south book Whipping Girl argues that well-nigh anti-trans sentiment directed at trans women should be understood as misogyny. Past embracing femininity, the volume argues, trans women cast doubt on the superiority of masculinity.[93]

Culture rewards traits that are considered masculine and devalues traits that seem feminine, co-ordinate to Tracy Thousand. Hallstead at Quinnipiac Academy. From childhood, boys and men are told to "man up" to announced tough by distancing themselves from feminine things. Boys learn that information technology is shameful to be seen as emotional, dependent, or vulnerable. Men raised in this manner may disown femininity and may even learn to despise it. In this view, misogyny is directed not only at women, but at any feminine qualities that men come across within themselves.[94]

This antipathy for the feminine causes men feel that they must affirm their dominance over women by controlling them, Hallstead writes. She illustrates this with the ancient story of Pygmalion, a sculptor who hated "the faults beyond measure out which nature has given to women."[95] Pygmalion creates a sculpture of a woman that magically comes live. Pygmalion is very gratified by the complete command he has over the woman, Galatea, because this control reenforces his masculinity. He considers Galatea the perfect adult female, in spite of his contempt for women, because of his absolute power over her.[94]

English and Welsh police

In recent years, there has been increasing discussion in England and Wales of misogyny being added to the list of aggravating factors that are commonly referred to by the media as "hate crimes". Aggravating factors in criminal sentencing currently include hostility to a victim due to characteristics such equally sexuality, race or inability.[96]

In 2016, Nottinghamshire Police began a airplane pilot project to record misogynistic behaviour as either hate criminal offense or detest incidents, depending on whether the action was a criminal offence.[97] Over two years (April 2016-March 2018) there were 174 reports made, of which 73 were classified every bit crimes and 101 as incidents.[98]

In September 2018, it was announced that the Law Committee would conduct a review into whether misogynistic conduct, as well as hostility due to ageism, misandry or towards groups such as goths, should exist treated as a detest criminal offense.[99] [100]

In October 2018, two senior law officers, Sara Thornton, chair of the National Police Chiefs' Council, and Cressida Dick, Commissioner of the Metropolitan Law, stated that police forces should focus on more serious crimes such as break-in and fierce offences, and not on recording incidents which are not crimes.[101] Thornton said that "treating misogyny as a detest crime is a concern for some well-organised campaigning organisations", but that constabulary forces "do not have the resource to practise everything".[102]

In September 2020 the Law Commission proposed that sexual practice or gender be added to the list of protected characteristics.[103] At the time of the Police force Commission'due south proposals 7 police force forces in England and Wales classed misogyny as a hate law-breaking, but that definition had not been adopted across the lath. The commission plans to make its official recommendations to the authorities in 2021.[104]

A Dwelling Office spokesperson in October 2021 stated that police forces had been requested to record whatever crime the victim understood was driven by hostility to their sex.[105]

Criticism of the concept

Camille Paglia, a cocky-described "dissident feminist" who has often been at odds with other academic feminists, argues that there are serious flaws in the Marxism-inspired[106] interpretation of misogyny that is prevalent in second-wave feminism. In contrast, Paglia argues that a close reading of historical texts reveals that men do not hate women just fear them.[107] Christian Groes-Green has argued that misogyny must be seen in relation to its opposite which he terms philogyny. Criticising R. W. Connell's theory of hegemonic masculinities, he shows how philogynous masculinities play out among youth in Maputo, Mozambique.[19]

See also

  • Exploitation of women in mass media
  • Gender studies
  • Honour killing
  • Men Going Their Own Way
  • Misandry
  • Misogynoir
  • Misogyny and mass media
  • Misogyny in hip hop civilisation
  • Misogyny in horror films
  • Misogyny in sports
  • Object relations theory
  • Sexuality in music videos
  • Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta
  • The Bro Code: How Contemporary Civilization Creates Sexist Men
  • Transmisogyny
  • Wife selling
  • Women'south rights

Notes and references

  1. ^ "MISOGYNY | Meaning & Definition for United kingdom of great britain and northern ireland English | Lexico.com".
  2. ^ Mohl, Allan S. (Summer 2015). "Monotheism: Its Influence on Patriarchy and Misogyny". Periodical of Psychohistory. 43 (1): 1–20.
  3. ^ a b c d e Manne, Kate (2019). Down Daughter: The Logic of Misogyny. Ithaca, New York: Oxford University Press. ISBN9780190604981.
  4. ^ Bloch, R. Howard; Ferguson, Frances (1989). Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy. University of California Press. ISBN978-0-520-06544-4.
  5. ^ Gilmore 2001, pp. 17–35
  6. ^ a b Gilmore, David D. (2001). Misogyny: The Male Malady. University of Pennsylvania Printing. pp. i–sixteen. ISBN0-8122-3589-four.
  7. ^ The New Shorter Oxford English language Dictionary on Historical Principles (Oxford: Clarendon Printing (Oxford Univ. Press), [4th] ed. 1993 (ISBN 0-nineteen-861271-0)) (SOED) ("[h]atred of women").
  8. ^ The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language (Boston, Mass.: Houghton Mifflin, 1992 (ISBN 0-395-44895-half dozen)) ("[h]atred of women").
  9. ^ Webster's Third New International Dictionary of the English language Language Unabridged (G. & C. Merriam, 1966) ("a hatred of women").
  10. ^ Random Firm Webster's Unabridged Dictionary (N.Y.: Random House, second ed. 2001 (ISBN 0-375-42566-vii)).
  11. ^ "Definition of MISOGYNY".
  12. ^ "Transcript of Julia Gillard's spoken language". The Sydney Forenoon Herald . Retrieved 15 Nov 2016.
  13. ^ Daley, Gemma (17 Oct 2012). "Macquarie Dictionary has last word on misogyny". Archived from the original on xix October 2012.
  14. ^ Kahalon, Rotem; Bareket, Orly; Vial, Andrea C.; Sassenhagen, Nora; Becker, Julia C.; Shnabel, Nurit (2 May 2019). "The Madonna-Whore Dichotomy Is Associated With Patriarchy Endorsement: Evidence From Israel, the The states, and Frg". Psychology of Women Quarterly. 43 (3): 348–367. doi:10.1177/0361684319843298. S2CID 155434624.
  15. ^ Johnson, Allan One thousand (2000). The Blackwell lexicon of sociology: A user's guide to sociological language. ISBN978-0-631-21681-0 . Retrieved 21 November 2011. , ("credo" in all small-scale capitals in original).
  16. ^ Flood, Michael (18 July 2007). International encyclopaedia of men and masculinities. ISBN978-0-415-33343-half dozen.
  17. ^ a b Illing, Sean (7 March 2020). "What nosotros get wrong most misogyny". Vox . Retrieved 16 July 2020.
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  19. ^ a b Groes-Dark-green, Christian (2011). "Philogynous Masculinities: Contextualising Alternative Manhood in Mozambique". Men and Masculinities. 15 (2): 91–111. doi:ten.1177/1097184x11427021. S2CID 145337308.
  20. ^ Nadal, Kevin L., ed. (2017). "Transmisogyny". The SAGE Encyclopedia of Psychology and Gender.
  21. ^ Reger, Jo, ed. (2018). Still, They Persisted: Feminisms and Connected Resistance in the U.S. Women's Motion. Taylor & Francis. Julia Serano [...] coined the term 'trans misogyny' to refer to specific bigotry against trans women and trans people who express femininity. [...] 'transmisogynoir' [can] focus on the violence and discrimination experienced by blackness and potentially other trans women and trans feminine people of color. This concept builds on Moya Bailey'due south term 'misogynoir,' which specifically names the intersection of 'racism, antiblackness, and misogyny that black women feel'[.]
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  23. ^ The editio princeps is on page 255 of book three of Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta (SVF, Old Stoic Fragments), see External links.
  24. ^ a b c A recent critical text with translation is in Appendix A to Will Deming, Paul on Marriage and Celibacy: The Hellenistic Background of 1 Corinthians 7, pp. 221–226. Misogunia appears in the accusative case on page 224 of Deming, as the fifth word in line 33 of his Greek text. It is split up over lines 25–26 in von Arnim.
  25. ^ 38-43, fr. 63, in von Arnim, J. (ed.). Stoicorum Veterum Fragmenta. Vol. 3. Leipzig: Teubner, 1903.
  26. ^ SVF 3:103. Misogyny is the first word on the page.
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Bibliography

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External links

  • Misogyny, Misandry, and Misanthropy

toddthament1977.blogspot.com

Source: https://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Misogyny

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